Douglas MacArthur Essay Example for Free

Douglas MacArthur EssayCarlos Pea Romulo once wrote that each of his careers might have been lived in a different country and a different age. Soldier, journalist, educator, author, and diplomat, he was a definitive world figure of the 20th century.Romulo grew up in the town of Camiling in the province of Tarlac in northern Philippines. He was born(p) within the Spanish walled city of Intramuros, manilla paper, on January 14, 1898, at the twilight of one colonial regime and the dawning of another. His father, Gregorio, fought in the revolution for Philippine liberty against Spain and, until surrender, America. The bitterness of the conflicts left an impression on the young person boymarking the beginnings of a rebel, as he called itand he made a promise neer to smile at an American soldier.His levelheaded father eventually welcomed American schoolteachers who came to Tarlac to teach English, however, becoming the archetypical of the towns elders to learn the language. Like wise, the young Romulos hatred abated not only because of his fathers example but also because he became friendly with an American sergeant.His fathers dream of an breakaway and democratic Philippines lived on. One of the last to take his oath of allegiance to America, the elder Romulo l acquire to accept the foreign powers rulings exceptas the young Romulo recounts in his memoirsin the manner of the flag.The American law says we cannot display our flag in any public place, Gregorio Romulo told his family. Well, my bed way of life is not a public place.In World War II Romulo was aide-de-camp to General Douglas MacArthur. As a journalist he wrote a series of articles, after a tour of the far East, about Japanese imperialism, and predicted an attack on the fall in States. For this he won the Pulitzer Prize in Journalism for Distinguished Correspondence, and it was MacArthur himself who delivered to his friend the good news.His skill at using words made Romulo the logical choice to b ecome the Voice of Freedom, which broadcasted news of the war effort to Filipinos and Americans a ilk. Often contrary to Japanese propaganda, Romulos reports earned the ire of the enemy, who put a price on his head. But Romulo kept broadcasting until the Fall of Bataan, and abandoned his post only after MacArthurs uncompromising orders to leave. He flew first to Australia, eventually ending up in the United States in exile, leaving behind his wife and four sons.In 1924 Romulo married Virginia Llamas, a local beauty titlist. They met at a picnic and they married not long after being crowned King and Queen of a Manila carnival. She once commented that she was the type of wife who preferred to g low-pitched faintly in her husbands shadow, to which one acquaintance quipped, this didnt leave much room to glow ina jab at Romulos height.Standing only 54 in his shoes, Romulo often made fun of his height. His prevail I Walked With Heroes opens with the anecdote about being the newly electe d president of the United Nationsthe first Asian to ever hold the postand having to be perched atop three thick New York City telephone books just to see and be seen by all the delegates below the podium. When MacArthur fulfilled his promise to return to the Philippines, with Romulo at his side, it was reported that the American general was wading in waist-deep water. One correspondent, Walter Winchell, immediately wired back asking how Romulo could have waded in that depth without drowning.He also used his height to his advantage. The little fellow is generally infrarated in the beginning, he once wrote. Then he does something well, and people are surprised and impressed. In their minds his achievement is magnified.A very early photo of RomuloTeam members of the University of the Philippines debate team, with Professor Carlos P. Romulo (center). From left Pedro Camus, Teodoro Evangelista, Deogracias Puyat, and Jacinto C. Borja. The photo was taken in San Francisco, California, Apr il 18, 1928, and the caption reads Four students of the University of the Philippines, under the leadership of Prof. Carlos P. Romulo of the College Faculty, recently arrived in the United States on a tour of the world to debate the head word of Filipino independence. The round-the-world debate on the Philippine question is academic and has nothing to do with politics.This kind of understanding(a) served him well as he began a career as a diplomat at the United Nations. Describing himself as the barefoot boy of politics, he had never before attended an inter areaal conference and was new to diplomacy. To add to this challenge, he was representing a small nation that had not yet achieved independence. (There already had been reports of Filipino delegates being ignored at international meetings.)Romulowhose lifelong dream was to help build a body such(prenominal) as the United Nationsresolved to make the Philippines the voice of all small nations. As a signatory of the charter formin g the United Nations in 1945, he utter the famous line, Let us make this floor the last battlefield at the first General Assembly. There was at first silence, but because he received a standing ovationthe only one given to any speaker at the conference.Romulo launched himself fully into the world of international diplomacy, standing his ground against the big powers and committing himself to the causes of fledging nations. Dismissed by some, like Andrei Vishinsky, chief of the Soviet delegation, as a little man from a little country, Romulo was undeterred, fighting like David, slinging pebbles of truth between theeyes of blustering Goliaths.President of the UN General Assembly Carlos P. Romulo introduces US President Harry S. Truman to Deputy Foreign Minister Andrei Vishinsky of the USSR, October 24, 1949, during the keister laying ceremony of the UN headquarters in New York City. President of the UN General Assembly Carlos P. Romulo introduces US President Harry S. Truman to Dep uty Foreign Minister Andrei Vishinsky of the USSR, October 24, 1949, during the floor laying ceremony of the UN headquarters in New York City. Dubbed by his colleagues Mr. United Nations, he was elected president of the United Nations General Assembly in 1949the first Asian to hold the positionand served as president of UN Security Council four times, in 1981, in 1980 and twice in 1957.Despite all the triumphs, Romulo hit low points in his life. His eldest son Carlos, Jr., died in a plane crash in 1957, and his beloved wife died in 1968, near the end of his terms as president of the University of the Philippines, his alma mater, and, concurrently, Secretary of Education.I had to be outstanding, he wrote, to make the greatest effort to win, to prove I was capable not in spite of having been born a Filipino but because I was a Filipino.

Experiences of Afro Caribbeans and Asian migrants to Britain

Experiences of Afro Caribbeans and Asian migrants to BritainThe second half of the 20th century truism a transformation of British society in which peoples from aras of the world that had formerly constituted colonies of the British pudding stone migrated to Britain in large enough numbers to select a significant impact upon the host community. Since Elizabethan successions, Britain had been host to significant numbers of black people. to that extent their impact had neer been felt as deeply as it was in the late ordinal century, when m both fragments of Britain became what successive governments chose to term multicultural. This change did non develop about without resistance and upheaval. The impact of migration was practically traumatic, especially upon those individuals who had left their homes to seek a different life in what they had looked upon as the Mother Country.The term Mother Country is well-kn knowledge and widely used. However, during the end of the Brit ish pudding stone it was used as a trope that assumed a very particular meaning when applied to the family relationship between the compound powerfulness and its dependent territories. During the nineteenth century, the expansion of the pudding stone was accompanied by a discourse that cast Britain in the lineament of p atomic number 18nt and protector, as may be seen in visual products of the period, such as the Punch cartoon from 21 April 1894 in which John Bull is depicted discovering a black pamper on his front doorstep, wrapped in a cloth marked Uganda, and with the caption THE BLACK BABY. Mr Bull What, another Well, I suppose I essential take it in David Dabydeen, in his first collection of poetry Slave Song (1984), includes an illustration of Britannia and the Natives, from a publication dated 1814, in which Britannia is shown on a raised pedestal surrounded by kneeling and supplicating black people with, in the background, the figure of equitableice with her scales . Britannia is thus configured as the suppositionl mother. much(prenominal) paradigms gave Britain a benevolent and protective role (albeit with the reluctant undertones of John Bull), whilst to the colonies there were attri aloneed the characteristics of immaturity, loyalty and submissiveness.However, in the history of Britains relations with its colonies, there is copious evidence of a br from each(prenominal) one in this unwritten contract of mutual loyalty and support. At home and abroad, Britain exploited, rejected and abused the Children of the Empire, yet the bonds were not easily broken and the twentieth century saw a significant number of colonial (or ex-colonial) peoples seeking a first- elapse encounter with Britain.The growth of migrant communities has been termed diaspora, a term that was borrowed from its traditional role in describing the dispersal of Jewish people, and it carries with it musical themes of banishment and trauma, suggesting a linkage asserted in t he context of exile from a native land, and a unity maintained in varying circumstances confronting a scattered universe. Beginning with the slave trade and continuing with indentured jab and the economic migrations of the later twentieth century, the British Empire was a significant force in the global migrations of successive communities of African and Asian peoples. Postcolonial literature and the theories that it has produced addresses the issue of migration and the rase of the European imperial and colonial enterprise.There ar two important strands to postcolonial discourse that, rather than opposing one another, are often overlapping and inter- plug intod the first is one that might be termed pessimistic in that it concentrates on the debilitating effects of colonialism and the racism with which it went hand in hand, and the second is a more optimistic view of the transformative power of migration discourses that reveal that truth is congenator and that the shifting viewp oints of outsiders and minorities have more to reveal about modern life than a totalising and deterministic primal power.The pessimistic viewpoint is usually one that is interested with militant protest and the recovery of history and finishing that had previously been denigrated and undermined and it has to be seen in the context of the damaging effects of loss and dislocation suffered under the colonial system. Any examination of migration mustiness devote attention to the economic and social conditions which cause migrant peoples to seek opportunities a course from their home communities and the structures of colonialism were particularly conducive to population movements, usually forced or encouraged by Britain for its own economic advantage. The late twentieth century migration of Caribbean and Asian people to Britain was initiated by Britain for economic reasons and was staring(a) by the combined mechanisms of active government policy and the poor living conditions which many another(prenominal) hoped to escape.It is clear that the economic rationale for the system of colonialism was exploitation and colonies inevitably remained under rear because they were used as sources of cheap raw materials. Poverty was endemic employ was unskilled, low paid and intermittent the reliance on foreign capital gave oversea companies a stranglehold over the economy processed goods were all imported, including most staple food stuffs housing was overcrowded and lacking in sanitation the child labour force was large spending on education was low and illiteracy was widespread . The neglect of any political development towarfareds self-determination and independence was withal a feature of twentieth century British colonialism executive control was centralised in the British parliament and, prior to the independence movements of the nineteen sixties, any expression of local government was chiefly confined to the representatives of the colonial power.The denial of t he cultural heritage of the black peoples of the Empire was in any case a vital part of the colonising process. It particularly affected those who were able to become educated through the system of providing scholarships to the most able pupils, who continued their studies to secondary and sometimes university level. All education was driven by European standards French, Spanish, Latin, English literature, English history were all taught, whilst local history and geography were ignored. The language of education was standard English local accents, vocabularies and grammatical social organizations were denied a voice. The intention was to inculcate a champion of loyalty and belonging to Britain, creating a local educated elite whose knowledge and values were determined by colonial rather than national standards. The long-term effect of this has been variously interpreted Caribbean writer Kenneth Ramchand has written of a cultural void and poet Edward Kamau Brathwaite has refer red to the fragmented culture of the Caribbean. Yet Amon Saba Saakana claims that the indigenous communities retained many of their African characteristics and were in conflict with the imposed colonial culture official culture may have been European, but many aspects of the alternative African culture remained intact, even though under siege. Such diversity of opinion illustrates the dilemma of a society which had traditionally been unable to develop any real cognizance of itself, except in the wrong dictated by an imperial foreign power. It is impossible to ignore the fact that, for the first generations of twentieth century colonial and postcolonial writers, the system under which they were educated was colonial in outlook and many of them continue to be preoccupied by their responses to European mildew and the artefacts of European culture. For the individual growing up in a colonial society, the difficulty of developing any real sense of self was compounded by the constant conflict between the standards and values of the indigenous community and the official norms imposed by the ruling power a dual sense of perception was often the result of these competing discourses. The image of a psyche that is alienated, divided, open to exploitation, overawed and unable to assert itself in the face of the imperial aggressor particularly pervaded the primitively literature which was touch on with migration (for example in Jean Rhyss Voyage in the Dark or V.S. Naipauls The Mimic Men).The twentieth century had thus perpetuated its own reading material of the nineteenth century discourse that figures the colonial subject as child-like and in need of parental protection. Although the historical evidence suggests the contrary that, in the Caribbean at least, colonialism was crisply imposed and required the stationing of quite large garrisons of troops to suppress opposition throughout the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries nonetheless, until quite recently the belief in the passivity and powerlessness of the local population was widely held and has found its way into literature. The myth of British superiority therefore had to be confronted when migrants had a firsthand discover of Britain and it is the dismantling of this myth that can be seen as a vital aspect of the postcolonial literary project. One of the seminal texts of postcolonial literary theory is entitled The Empire Writes back off and this aspect of writing back to the imperial power, when previously colonised peoples create work which adopts, adapts, and often rejects the established European models has become a key idea in postcolonial literature.From this idea of the liberating of postcolonial voices and the opening up of a new form of discourse a second, more optimistic, strand of thought has developed that is particularly concerned with the postcolonial sleep together of migration. For writers such as Salman Rushdie and Hanif Kureishi, the newly emergent identities of migrants can be sites of excitement, new possibilities, and even privilege.The migrant seems in a better position than others to constitute that all systems of knowledge, all views of the world, are never totalising, whole or pure, but incomplete, muddled and hybrid. To live as a migrant may well lambast the pain of loss and of not being firmly rooted in a secure place but it is similarly to live in a world of immense possibility with the realisation that new knowledges and ways of seeing can be constructed out of the myriad combinations of the scraps which Rushdie describes knowledges which challenge the authority of elder ideas of rootedness and fixity.The cultural commentator Homi K Bhabha, in his book The Location of Culture emphasises this notion of marginality and regards the crossing of boundaries as an exciting new departure in the construction of identity, not merely in terms of the individual, but also for communities. The migrant has a crucial roleStan ding at the b erect, the migrant is empowered to come in actively in the transmission of cultural inheritance or tradition (of both the home and the host land) rather than passively accept its venerable springer and pedagogical wisdom. The argument is that hybridity, liminality and the postcolonial condition are positive and productive and it forms the basis of a more optimistic reaction to the essentially negative history of slavery, Empire and colonisation.However, it is possible for this approach to be seen as over-optimistic, in that it is produced from a cosmopolitan and educated elite (Rushdies experience of migration consisted in being educated at a top British public school and later joining the celebrity literary society of capital of the United Kingdom and New York). Smith warns that, for many migrants, disconnection is not necessarily a comfortable state of being and that there is a danger in celebrating a very privileged form of mobility and in ignoring typical, mundan e experience of localized forms of control and resistance. During the latter half of the twentieth century, the first substantial number of Caribbean migrants travelled to Britain on the S.S. Empire Windrush in 1948, and were greeted at Tilbury moorage by newspaper reporters whose banner headlines read Welcome Home. The idea of Britain as home was one which had been deliberately encouraged in the British Empire and had served to alienate colonial peoples from their actual homelands. Once in Britain, the idea of home was transposed onto the places that had been left behind. Home therefore became a contradictory idea and was displaced from actuality into the caprice, never in the here-and-now, but evermore in the desired future or the remembered prehistoric. John McLeod utilises Salman Rushdies essay Imaginary Homelands to argue that the migrant experiences the concept of home as primarily a mental construct built from the odds and ends of memory that survive from the past, yet it is also true to say that, for many migrants, home had always had a dual aspect it was partly situated in the the ideologically determined concept that was the originating location of British education, law, language and culture but it was also located in their ancestral homelands in Asia or Africa. The migrant experience is therefore one of liminality, poised on the threshold, never fully occupying the space called home.Just as identity within the colonial context was a contested site of contradictions, so the effect of migration on identity has become a recurrent theme of tension and conflict. The ways in which postcolonial writers have found methods of replying and re-writing, rejecting, utilising and transforming European traditions and canons of literature has been complicatedly affected by migration. As Anne McClintock remarks, the tenacious legacies of imperialism continue to dictate the authorise binaries colonizer-colonized, self-other, dominance-resistance, metropolis-c olony, colonial-postcolonial, making strategic opposition problematic such binaries run the risk of simply inverting, rather than overturning, dominant notions of power. The existence of these binaries is often explored thematically in the literature and can be detected in the oppositions of the past and the present the places from and to which the migration occurs the wider society and the individual the language and culture of two (or more) places. The perpetual tension created by the contradictions of postcolonial experience is explored through these oppositional themes. The sense of self and the identity of the migrant is thus a divided one and, whether optimistic or pessimistic in outlook, the germinal fertility of this division is what the postcolonial writer seeks to explore. By reading a few examples of postcolonial literature it is possible to weigh the positive and negative strands of theory and to explore to what extent the writers demonstrate that the contradictions and complications of migration and the muddle and pain of rootlessness have been outweighed by the excitement of discovering a fertile site of new identity.In the discussion that follows, the poetry of Linton Kwesi Johnson and boon Nichols allow for be explored, together with David Dabydeens novel The Intended and Ayub Khan-Dins play and film East is East. Not every work will necessarily be discussed in each chapter, as the different literary works exemplify the experience of migration in differing ways. However, the thematic concerns of all of these works will, it is hoped, be seen to be so closely intertwined that each chapter will represent a facet of the whole.The contrasting experiences of the past and present of the migrants experience is a common theme within much of the literature of migration. As has been previously discussed, the colonial past was a brutalising political system. David Dabydeen has taken up the theme of migration in Caribbean literature in terms of the shatte ring of illusions, trauma and disaffection, personal disintegration and shared vulnerability and dependence. His novel The Intended is intensely concerned with the colonial past and he uses Joseph Conrads Heart of vestige as its inspiration and organising theme. Dabydeens view of Conrads novel can be summarised by his comments from his A Readers Guide to West Indian and Black British WritingConrads Heart of Darkness offers a powerful denunciation of the horrors of Imperialism in its depiction of the cruelty of Europeans and the decimation of native Africans. In the greed for ivory and quick profit, life is smashed up and squandered.Dabydeen comments on the confusion, grotesqueness and absurdity depicted in the novel as the hallmarks of imperialism and he contrasts the brutal reality with the dreams and aspirations which had originally impelled it. The figure of Kurtz degenerates from noble idealism to a squalid endAt the beginning, he is a classical missionary figure, full of nobl e ideals about torch-bearing, about setting the bush alight with the concepts of European civilization. Instead of the fulfilment of these burning ideals, Kurtz degenerates into an emaciated figure crawling on all fours and the only burning that takes place in the novel is fire which destroys the sponsor shed and which exposes the Europeans as ineffectual buffoons in their plan of attacks to control it.Conrads theme is the turning of a dream into a sort of confused nightmare and Dabydeen has used this idea as the theme of his own novel. For Dabydeens migrants, the journey from Europe to Africa is reversed, but their migration from their homelands to London, the heart of Empire, has a similarly brutalising and corrupting effect. They also experience a descent into corruption, as they become increasingly involved in prostitution and pornography. Whilst the desire to exploit the commodity of ivory is the motivating force for Conrads empire builders, Dabydeen turns this desire into a n exploitation of fresh womanly flesh as a commodity. Dabydeen has used Kurtzs name for his fiance the intended as an ironic title for his own book in order to highlight the gap between aspiration and actuality. The narrators comment to his girlfriend, Janet, reveals to him and to the reader this gapBut you are fragrant, you are everything I intended, I blurted out, the words seeming to come from nowhere, and as soon as they were uttered, sounding foolish. In one accidental sentence I had finally confessed all the dreams that I had stuttered out to her in a year of meetings, always trying to structure the expression of my desire for her so as to make it impersonal, philosophic, universal, but always failing, my plain needs leaking through the cracks in words. However, in this very ability to articulate himself, the narrator, like Conrads Marlow, shows him able to distance himself and thus survive the brutality that surrounds him. This is in contrast to figure of Joseph, who, in committing suicide by setting light to himself, recalls the futility of Kurtzs burning ideals.Throughout Dabydeens novel, Joseph is depicted as the person least involved in European culture. The narrator imbibes European culture through his contact with Western literature, as he reads Chaucer, Milton and Conrad. Illiteracy frees Joseph from these influences and he is often depicted as a character who can take an outside, alternative view of things. His adoption of Rastafarianism also aligns him with a more elemental Africanness and a closer association with his Jamaican origins. Joseph stands outside European culture and is therefore a more trenchant critic of its negative forces. It is he who comments that Ivory is the heart of the white man and he similarly exposes the sterility of the narrators attitude to literature in the dissection of poetry that is an uncritical mimic of his teachers methods Poetry is like sibilation Joseph remarks, You turning all the room in the universe and in the human mind into bird cage. Yet Joseph is unable to use his insight to gain freedom. He is repeatedly confounded by his own ignorance, even to the extent of being unable right to operate the video camera which is his chosen method of intercepting and interpreting his experiences. His attempt to film the touch as it brushed against the leaves capturing on film the invisibility of the wind leaves him dangling dangerously by the waist high up in a tree and is misunderstood by witnesses as an attempted suicide. Such an image is used to evoke other familiar images of slaves being punished, particularly one which Dabydeen has used in his own article on Eighteenth-century literature on handicraft and slavery (see below). This illustration was based on a 1773 eyewitness description. The background shows skulls on posts reminiscent of a scene in Heart of Darkness and also alludes to Josephs preoccupation with bones and skeletons.It appears, therefore, that Josephs function in t he novel is to represent the past in which the enslaved African was denied access to education and so was rendered inarticulate and, in terms of history, silent. Joseph is eventually reduced to crouching in a derelict building, emaciated and silent, vainly attempting to scratch letters into the soil with a stick. He has been unable to organise and ledger his experience in anything but confused and fragmentary images and in this way Dabydeen demonstrates the inarticulacy of the state of slavery and the ways in which modern historians and writers must reconstruct a past from inadequate evidence. In telling Josephs story, the narrator of The Intended preserves Josephs history through the written word, but, just as in the history of slavery, it must always be a third person narration because, without access to reading and writing, Josephs own I is lost when he himself dies.Although it has been argued that the characters in Dabydeens novel utterly materialize, having no history, the pa st as empty as their pockets this is not true, for Dabydeen is using the past figuratively and the past of his characters is often not a personal one, but is implied by their relationship to history. The novels narrative swings between the past, present and future of the narrators experience, relating his sense of shame and unreality in the present, as he feels himself to be in a state of suspension between the past from which he has come and the future to which he aspires. For him, the past and the future are always present, creating conflicting images of who he is, what he has been and what he will become. In this way, he demonstrates the constant crossing and re-crossing of temporal boundaries and thus lives in the liminality of which Home K Bhabha has written. Dabydeen is not unique in his attempt to come to terms with the violence of colonial history and the aspiration towards a different future. East is East illustrates the relationship between the past and the present through the intergenerational conflict in the Khan household. The Khan children have no memory of a past elsewhere because they have been born in Britain instead they are an example of the youthful offspring of the migrant generation who have an uncertain sense of where they truly belong and are alienated by their inability to influence acceptance in the host community. Having little or no sense of their past, their fragmented responses to identity are governed by their differing attempts to assimilate. George Kahns inability to relate to his children and their aspirations symbolises the tension between the past and the present. Though he is frustrated by his own inability to govern his family in traditional Pakistani ways and though he has failed to inculcate Muslim values into his children, George has a strong sense of his personal identity which his children seem to lack. He is concerned at the current war in Kashmir and he has a sense of personal involvement, feeling members of his fa mily to be at risk. The progress of this conflict on the television and radio acts as a background noise in the familys life, just as the past of colonial conflict is a background to their current situation. The British Raj had united the disparate move of the Indian subcontinent, but with independence came partition and the creation of East and West Pakistan. The political events to which the film alludes are the rumblings of war and discontent which continued into the 1970s, with the separation of Pakistan and Bangladesh. The past seems to offer no hope for the alienated generation of children who have been born in Britain. The history of empire, whose repercussions continue to be felt, both politically in Asia and culturally in Salford, does not seem to offer a transformative or positive trope for the characters in Khan-Dins drama.Linton Kwesi Johnsons central concern is with this generation that has little or no sense of a past elsewhere or of the history which has moulded thei r identity. In his work the theme of giving voice to the present and making sense of the past is always significant. He has commented on the positive effects for the older generation of having memories with which to identify at least we could still identify with home because we came from somewhere else Young people born in this country dont have any other home to identify with. In this way, he describes the migrant experience of routes that have to act as a substitute for roots, as McGill argues Preferring routes to roots, Johnson operates in what Homi Bhabha calls the interstitial passage between fixed identifications. Thus, Johnson can juxtapose his current experience of Britain with his memories of a distant homeland in very overt ways, for example in the trope of the letter home in Sonnys Lettah (Anti-Sus Poem). This poem illustrates Johnsons strategy in its title, by uniting the writers relationship with the past (as a son, he is explicitly identifying his place within the gen erations of history) and the present political situation (the hated sus law which enabled police to stop and hunt club and was perceived as a racist weapon against young black men). The poem opens with the address Brixtan Prison / Jebb Avenue / Landan south-west two / Inglan which by its spelling, defamiliarises Britain. The adjacent greeting, Dear Mama, / Good Day, is rendered in normal English spelling, yet it uses an expression that is specific to Jamaica, since Good Day is not a way in which a British person would begin a letter. Johnson is thus re-working both the spelling and familiar modes of British address in order to weld the past of Sonnys warmly and secure childhood to the brutality and grief of the present experience of Britain. Johnsons elegiac attitude to the home of Jamaica is also clear in his poems Reggae fi Dada and Jamaican berceuse, which both exemplify the importance of memory in the present and a connection to the past from which the migrant has come.In he r poem One Continent/To Another, Grace Nichols demonstrates that it is futile to separate the theme of past and present from the sense of place. The passage of slaves and later migrants moving from one continent to another is a transition in space as well as time. In her book I is a Long Memoried Woman, Nichols seeks to relate the past to the present by her focus on the subject of slavery and in poems such as One Continent/To Another she describes the experience of the slave as a movement in time and space from the past of bleeding memories in the darkness to the future of piecing the life she would lead. Nichols uses the confusion between beginnings and endings to suggest the notion that past, present and future are simultaneousBeing born a womanshe moved againknew it was the Black Beginningthough everything said it wasthe end.This is an example of what Easton describes as the imaginative, in particular metaphoric processes by which Nichols transforms the historical African-Caribbe an female experience into positive images. Easton also comments that Forgetting is to be silenced. Just as Joseph in The Intended is silenced by his inability to record his experiences, so in the work of Nichols, the inability to call up memories is another form of silencing of the past and, through it, the present. In the poem One Continent/To Another Nichols uses the repeating of a negative phrase to convey a positive sense of the past when she describes the woman who hasnt forgotten / hasnt forgotten. As the title of this poetry collection suggests, the theme of memory is central to Nicholss intention and her construction of memory as a double negative in this poem not merely remembering, but, more importantly, not forgetting illustrates the experience of memories that on the surface are emphatically negative but that can actually be transformed into the positive and life-giving experience of the present. In this way, Nichols transforms the memory of the experience of slavery into a discussion of the present experience of migration. One Continent/To another records the first experience of enforced migration that of the slaves in the middle passage uterus of crossing the Atlantic who encounter a metaphorical giving birth to a new New World self. Each migrant experiences the sense of figuratively stumbling onto the shore, being dragged down, thirsting, the disorientation of displacement, yet Nichols turns this negative, bereft of fecundity into her final affirmation of the future the life she would lead. Nichols thus succeeds in changing an essentially brutal experience into one of affirmation and strength. The transformational potency of migration is thus embedded not in the experience itself, but in the memory of survival and in the imaginative power of the migrant. In this way Nicholss work can be interpreted as an example of the power of the imagination over the scraps of disparate experience to which Salman Rushdie refers (as discussed by John McLeod, above).For David Dabydeen, too, the time shifts in the narration of The Intended are also geographical shifts. Large portions of the book are concerned with the narrators childhood in Guyana and these memories of a distant homeland which are juxtaposed upon his experience of Britain. During the time of the period of the British Empire there was always a sense that England and especially London was the dominant metropolitan centre, while the colonial homeland was regarded as dominated periphery and was denigrated as inferior. Unable to define themselves, except in contradistinction to the imperial centre, the inhabitants of the colonies looked upon their own homelands with a sense of unreality because they were undefined in terms of the dominant colonial discourses. In seeking to create his own homeland as a setting for his novel, Dabydeen creates multiple literary landscapes, not only enshrining London and Oxford as markers of education and achievement, but also giving status to the homeland in which his imagination was formed. Ashcroft, Griffiths and Tiffin have discussed the crisis of migration in terms of the ambivalent relationship between identity and place that often distinguished the colonial experienceA major(ip) feature of postcolonial literatures is the concern with place and displacement. It is here that the special postcolonial crisis of identity comes into being the concern with the development or recovery of an effective identifying relationship between self and place.For the postcolonial writer, to re-cast their own homeland as a reference point against which to see Britain is a reversal of the pattern of the past in which all other countries were contrasted with the prescriptive core of British literature, landscape and history. What is perhaps most crucial to Dabydeens use of Guyana as a setting is its interweaving with the narrators experience of London in a way that always tends to dominate and qualify London. For example, in his first re ference to Guyana, the narrator begins with a metaphorI walked down Bedford Hill feeling sorry for myself, compliments I had a family to go home to. Nasims mother was like my grandmother who waited by the roadside and when I stepped of the bus at Albion Village would take my hand tightly in hers and lead me

Faculty Of Hospitality Management Tourism Essay

Faculty Of Hospitality Management touristry EssayBased on the problem statement and question questions, questionnaires will be distributed to respondents of 100 local tourists and 100 worldwideist tourists participating in the Kampung Santubong Homestay syllabus using non probability, convenience sampling method.Results that will be obtained found on local and international tourists delight participating on the merchandising flux of the Kampung Santubong Homestay architectural plan will be determined.Homestay course was first introduced back in 1970s in Kampung Cherating Lama, Pahang. The founder of such appointment was famously known as Mak Long. Types of basic registration Mak Long has provided for the guests during those days consist both breakfast and dinner and served at home (Amran, 2008). It is believed that in the late 1980s, the homestay broadcast then has been transformed into Japanese youth stay where they learned the rural way of tone of the locals (Ibrahim a nd Razzaq,n.d. ) . (K similarlym and Ashikin, 2006) homestay programme in Malaysia was introduced in 1988 by the formerly known as Ministy of Culture, Arts and Tourism Malaysia later known as Ministry Tourism of Malaysia.Today, homestay programme in Malayan context of use is be as the rural-cultural- community based touristry crossroad (The Star, 2009) and is seen to hand potential in providing income and employment for the rural community as a whole. Thus, as stated under the Ninth Malaysian Plan, an amount of RM 40 million al hardened to the Ministry of Tourism to upgrade infrastructures lacked in the rural areas (Ibrahim and Razzaq,n.d.). (Ninth Malaysian Plan, 2006-2010) the governments priority is on development of rural communities and two strategies undertaken include minimizing the obvious gap in income between the rural and urban areas. As stated by the Ministry of Tourism Malaysia (2010) Until May 2010, a total of 227 villages and 2984 participants registered unde r Ministry of Tourism Malaysia.11.1) Background of study Kampung Santubong Homestay ProgrammeIt was believed that Santubong was once famous for its trade and this information is approve up by the remnants of English, Hindu and Chinese influence here. Based on the claim made by the local community of Santubong, Santubong was originally known as Kampung Teluk Pasir Putih (White Sandy Bay Village) as given by the Chinese settlers trading at the time. The most unique feature of the legendary mount Santubong is the womanly omen lying on her side (Sarawak Museum).Santubong is considered as the largest archaeological site in Malaysia compared to Lembah Bujang in Peninsular Malaysia ascribable to thousands of ceramic together with 40,000 tonnes of iron were found in 1947 by curator, Tom Harrison (1947-1966) . This seat was believed to be important area for merchants and iron mining from eleventh to thirteen century.Santubong Village, a Malay fishing village strategically located at the river mouth of the Sarawak with the legendary mount Santubong as the backdrop makes this village a unique one. About 40 minutes drive from the Kuching urban center centre to r sayly Santubong Village, this Santubong village is rich with famous landmarks that can be found around the village. Popular list among tourists are the mysterious Sultan Tengah tomb (First and the last Sarawak Sultan), the Legendary Mount Santubong surrounded by myths. Other historic landmarks that exist until today are the James Brooke Bungalow. The very famous history pronounced here as well where Wallace the famous scientist penned his theory on speciation and biography here, Batu Buaya (Curse crocodile stone), Teluk Sepang (Raden Merpati landed in Santubong), Bongkisam (An old iron mine), Batu Gambar (Pictorial Rock) and Pulau Kera (Monkey Island).(Source Sarawak Museum,n.d.).21.2) Problem statement there have been several explorees done previously on the benefits and positive contribution through the homestay programme. However, this study will focus on determining the effectiveness of for severally one components of marketing mix such as yield, price, place and promotion by Kampung Santubong Homestay Programme against tourist joy.1.3) Research objectivesThe objective of the study is to determine the effectiveness of each components of marketing mix such as product, price, place and promotion against tourist satisfaction are as follows-To determine tourist satisfaction against product in Kampung Santubong Homestay Programme.To determine tourist satisfaction against price offered by Kampung Santubong Homestay Programme.To determine tourist satisfaction against promotional dodge offered by Kampung Santubong Homestay Programme.To determine tourist satisfaction against the place in which Kampung Santubong Homestay Programme is located.31.4) Research QuestionsHow effective are the components of marketing mix use by Kampung Santubong homestay programme against tourist satisfactio n. The handed-down components of marketing mix in are as follows-How to determine tourist satisfaction against product in Kampung Santubong Homestay Programme?How to determine tourist satisfaction against price offered against promotional strategy offered by Kampung Santubong Homestay Programme?How to determine tourist satisfaction against the promotional strategy offered by Kampung Santubong Homestay Programme?How to determine tourist satisfaction against the place in which Kampung Santubong Homestay Programme located?1.5) Scope of StudyThis research is undertaken to determine the effectiveness of each components of marketing mix such as product, price, place and promotion by the Kampung Santubong Homestay Programme against tourist satisfaction. This research of study will mainly focus at the Kampung Santubong Homestay Programme located at Santubong, Kuching Sarawak.41.6) Limitation of Research1.6.1)Insufficient resourcesInsufficient resources due to lack of relevant previous rese arches done through online scholarly journals. Most online journals are on payment basis and only few free articles or journals obtainable online.1.6.2) Time constraintLimited time to conduct research since distribution of questionnaires in targeted area falls during the month of Ramadhan, the fasting month for the Muslims and also on the festive month, Hari Raya. Some of the local community participated in the Santubong Homestay Programme may not have time to entertain guests.1.6.3) TouristTourists participation reception to the questionnaires distributed may vary. Some tourists may be willing to participate in this research and some may not.1.6.4) Seasonal factorDue to the reputation of product of homestay programme, during low season, number of tourists participating in the homestay programme may be affected.51.7) Significance of StudyThis study help in contributing rich information to all homestay operators in Kuching on the influence of tourist satisfaction against the mark eting mix adopted by homestay programmes in graze to enhance homestay programmes in the future. In fact, using tourists satisfaction as a tool to determine on the elements of the marketing mix such as the product, price, promotion and place can benefit homestay operators on providing the best homestay product/ service by distinctiating themselves from each other, hence, the sand of uniqueness to attract to a greater extent tourists in participating in the homestay programme especially in throughout Kuching.6Chapter 2 Literature Review2.1) Definition of terms2.1.1) Homestay ProgrammeThe term homestay programmes are varied in opposite parts of the world gum olibanum, according to Barke (2004) In defining the term homestay programme, there is no single accepted definition in the International studies. Lane (1994) stated homestay as a rural community based tourism product, hence falls under rural tourism category.2.1.2) Tourist satisfactionTourist satisfaction is defined as (Klaus, 1985,pg 21) the accumulated experience of a customers purchase and experiences2.1.3) Marketing mix(Perreault, Jr.and McCarthy, 2004, pg38) marketing variables are separated into product, price, promotion and price leads to an uncomplicated grammatical construction of marketing strategy.72.2) Homestay Programme(Akbar, Bael, Hassan Baguley, 2003) homestay programme in Australia is the sign of accommodation for international students to reside in and is believed to help them with culture adaptation. Homestay is comparable to bed and breakfasts and more affordable compared to rental type accommodation (Akbar, Bael, Hassan, Baguley, 2003). In Malaysia context of homestay programme natural setting, Both (Kalsom, 2009 and Tourism Government, 2008) mentioned homestay programme takes place in a kampung or village setting where guests have the opportunity to live together in the same house with their adopted families and learn the traditional way of lives of the host family. (Kalsom, 2009) added Malaysia homestay programme differed from other type of homestay programme where host-tourists participation is emphasized through involvement in local activities.(Tourism Government, 2008) homestay programme in Malaysia is owned by homestay operators that are tending(p) with a license to participate in the homestay programme. Meaning to say, not all home owners have the privilege to take part in this homestay unless they abide to a list of criteria established by the Ministry of Tourism for all participating homestay operators. The list of criterions pertaining to hygiene, criminal record, clean toilet, adequate number of accommodation in terms of separate bedrooms, accessibility to main road and no communicable disease are highly regarded. Generally, homestay development policy in Malaysia is aimed to fully utilized natural resources at kampung level, conservation of the socio cultural and artistic customs of the village as well as its uniqueness.However, there are several evidence clearly shows that there are similarities in some elements of the homestay programme. For example, the homestay programmes in countries like Australia, Malaysia, and Kwam Emakana community in South Africa stated that the culture exchange between the host and the guests does exist through accommodation provided by the host family.8This cultural exchange is emphasizing through host-guest participation on local activities, local food and customs. Similar to the Malaysian context of homestay, the Kwam Emakana community also takes part in the community based tourism homestay where it takes place in a rural / village setting. However, not all homestay accommodation of the Kwam Emakana exists in the rural setting since they also provide township accommodation with private homes (Kwam Emakana Community Based Homestay Initiative in South Africa, 2010 pg 152). According to the introduction Tourism Organization projections cites in (African Business, 2010), homestay programme gains its popularity may drive by the need to find cheaper accommodation and involving holidays from the travellers part. In order to have a accost experience of the host culture, guests expected the homestay accommodation including the food and local activities as it is. (Solomon Mburu, African Business, 2010).2.3) Tourist satisfactionIn tourism, satisfaction is evaluated based on the characteristics of tourism offers and respondents are typically evaluated through satisfaction scale (Kozak, 2001). (Fuchs Weiermair (2003) finish attributes are correlated to a variable measuring total customer (tourists) satisfaction resulting in more valid managerial implications. According to (Zeithaml et al . . .) cited by (Pawitra and Tan, 2003) tourism in nature is different from other area of services, thus there is a need for tourism industry to used SERVQUAL to measure tourist satisfaction for a destination.9(Kozak and Rimmington, 2000) tourist satisfaction are greatly affected by the tourist mo tivation to purchasing, consumption and services related to tourism offers. In addition, tourist satisfaction considered as an effective tool in homestay tourism and helped marketers in tourism product positioning (Seubsamarn and Cho, 2009).There was research being done on the dealingship between quality, satisfaction, previous experience and loyalty (Baker and Crompton, 2000 Bignee et al., 2001Pritchard, 2003. Petrick, 2004b Yoon and Uysal, 2005 Um et al., 2006). Perceived quality leads to consumer satisfaction, thus enhance promotion of the destination through battle cry of mouth and repeat purchase (Brady and Robertson, 2001). This statement agreed also by (Bignee et al. (2001) destinations image is a major key related to quality, satisfaction, and tourists motivation repeat purchase. (Yoon and Uysal, 2005) shows the difference tourists motivation that needs to be applied in multiple dimensions via integrated approaches and the complex nature of satisfaction as well as the the ories of measuring satisfaction.2.4) Elements of the Marketing Mix (4Ps)The traditional definition of marketing mix which consists of 4Ps was proposed by E. Jerome McCarthy (1960). Its elements namely the product, price, promotion and place have been used extensively by marketers all over the world (Wikipedia.org, 2012). Kannan and Srinivasan (2009) implied the marketing mix for any service industry usually comprises of 8ps, where four adopted from the traditional marketing mix and the later are go, physical evidence, people, and productivity.The first element of marketing mix is the product. In a homestay programme context, what drives tourists to flock to any destination as stated by Maimunah and Abdul Rahim (2009) cited in (Ibrahim and Razzaq,n.d. ) The motivation factor of the tourists to visit a particular destination is mainly for the product or attractions.10The products mentioned referred to the auxiliary attractions such as the natural resources like nature and habitat of the village setting has to offer, vernacular architecture, traditional delicacies and beverages, arts and crafts, music and cultural activities, historical significance, farming(a) activities and special phenomena. Hence, tourism product / service usually have direct impact on tourist satisfaction. In a service context, a need satisfying only emerged gradually for the customer throughout the consumption process. Meaning to say, a service is seen as a process that leads to an outcome during partly synchronic production and consumption processes (Gronroos, 2001).In the context of tourism product which usually related with the service, Ferrell (2005) product is the core of the marketing mix strategy and thus, stockholders convolute in the making and production of the tourism product can easily manipulate those products and come up with more unique features in the effort to distinguish themselves from competitors. corresponding goes to the homestay programme packages offered by sto ckholders involved such homestay operators of Kampung Santubong with the help of tour operators that bringing in the tourists to the village and active promotion and grants by the Malaysia Tourism Ministry (Ministry of Tourism Malaysia, 2011).In contrary, this has not always been the case. According to Seaton and Bennett (1996) and Butler and Hall (1998), one of the main issues that are faced by most tourism destinations is the difficulty to distinguish themselves from each other. Technically, most of the tourism product / services offered by these tourism destination operators are similar which by all means they might have bewildered their sense of uniqueness especially in the eyes of the tourists, their target market (Garrod,Wornell,Youell,Garrod et al. , 2006).11Referring back to the product, since tourism product / service are categorized as services marketing, there is a need to differentiate tourism marketing when compared to other services (Lovelock). In this sense, The diff erences between tourism marketing and other type of services include the nature of the tourism product itself where it emphasizes on providing recreational experience and hospitality to tourists, tourists must travel in order to consume the tourism product/ service thus making the elements of time and money spent to travel affect tourists travel decisions (Kannan and Srinivasan, 2009). This similar approach also agreed by Seaton and Bennett (1996) whereby tourism product does not permitted the target market which is the tourist to try the tourism product / service before purchasing. In addition to the issue pertaining to the nature of tourism product / service, as implied by Parasuraman et al. (1985) and Schiffman and Kanuk (2000), the nature of tourism product also may influence the perspective of the consumer,the tourists on the service quality.Promotion is defined as all the methods of communications used by the marketer in order to transfer information about certain product or a service. The methods are sales promotion, advertising, personal selling and public relations (Wikipedia.org, 2012). These methods of promotion are relatively different from each other. Advertising is different compared to public relations because an individual or an institution need to pay for their stories to be advertised is it in the internet, newspaper or television. Public relations are commonly used as a medium for promotional strategy. Such example of PR was the launching of Misompuru Homestay Packages with MASWings by the Federal Tourism Minister, Dato Eng Yen Yen (Daily Express, 2012). It is up to the stakeholders involved on how to promote the destination image in which the homestay programme setting lies. Tourism Malaysia (2010b) is continuously promoting the homestay programme various local activities happening in different homestay programme operators throughout Malaysia (Jamaludin, Othman and Awang, 2010).12According to Ministry of Tourism Malaysia (2011), Homestay P rogramme is an experience where tourists stay with selected families, interact and experience, the daily life of these families as well as experiencing Malaysian culture.Thus, potential tourists that are keen to participate in the Malaysian adaptation of a homestay programme can easily browse through the official Malaysia Homestay Website www.go2homestay.com . entropy on sales promotion of homestay packages is available there as well (Ministry of Tourism Malaysia, 2011). Other example of the latest promotion effort by the Tourism Malaysia with is the Homestay Rail, as stated by the director of the agency from Singapore, Zalizam Zakaria (News Straight Times, 2012). This Homestay Rail will attract mainly students and senior citizens from Singapore to participate in the homestays located along the journey between Johor Bharu and the east coast (News Straight Times, 2012).When it comes to promoting the tourism product such as homestay programme, the destination image plays an importan t role in promoting the tourism product / services in this case, the homestay programme. The definition of destination image are agreed by both Buhalis (2000) Baloglu and McCleary (1999) in which perceptions of any destination held in the minds of tourists. According to Chon (1992) Baloglou and Bringmerg (1997) cited in Buhalis (2000) Before people go to a destination they develop the image and a set of expectations based on previous experience, word of mouth, press reports, advertising and common beliefs (JobTrust Incorporated, 2007-2012). However, this will not always seem to be the case, Weirmair and Fuchs (1999) mentioned Destinations could change their advertising strategies. Advertisement could either emphasise the service process characteristics of its tourism and related cultures by focussing on tourists experiences within the destination (Munar, n.d.).13Price refers to the amount a customer is willing to pay for the product or service in relation to tourism services cont ext. The price offered for the product / service must complements other elements of marketing mix in order since it will determine whether the profits are favourable which is important for the business survival (Wikipedia.org, 2012). According to Ministry Tourism of Malaysia (2011), the basic cost of spending on homestay packages cut back from Ringgit Malaysia 150 250 inclusive of meals, accommodation, and activities, depending on the activities offered in various homestay programme operators throughout Malaysia. In addition, all cost related information to homestay packages offered from various homestay operators are reachable through the official Malaysian Homestay website, www.go2homestay.com. Place is where the product / service is provided by individual or institution to the customer and the place must be loving and convenient to the customers. Place is also commonly referred to distribution (Wikipedia.org, 2012). According to Uysal, Chen and Williams (2000) to build a posi tive destination image in the minds of tourists was not an easy job and served as marketing challenges for stockholders involved.142.5) Theoretical FrameworkTourists SatisfactionMarketing mix (4Ps)ProductPricePromotionPlace15CHAPTER 3 Research Design and Methodology3.1) Definition of research design(Micheal. S.Carriger, 2000) stated research design can be seen as as common sense and clear thinking for the management of research to come up with effective strategy in conducting a reaserch.3.2) SamplingResearch example is a aggroup of people chosen from the sampling frame by representing the whole population of study (goodresearch.eu, 2012). According to Uma Sekaran (2000), a sample size is a subset of a population being studied and only some elements of the population are treated as the sample.3.2.1) PopulationAccording to Uma Sekaran (2000), Population is defined as the entire group of people, events, or things of interest that the researcher wishes to investigate. As also stated b y Joan Joseph Castillo (2009) Research population is generally a large prayer of individuals or objects that is the main focus of a scientific query. The target population for this research is local and international tourists visiting Kuching, Sarawak.3.2.2) Sample frameA sample frame is referred to the list consisting of the units of the population (MBA Official, 2010). Also stated in (Wikipedia.org, 2012) sample frame may include the individuals, households or institutions which related the population. The sample frame of research is of local and international tourists who are participating in the Kampung Santubong Homestay Programme.163.2.3) Sampling designNon probability, convenience sampling method will be used for this research. thingmabob sampling involved collecting information from members of the population who are conveniently available provide to it (Sekaran, 2000). Thus, both the local and international tourists who are most available or most conveniently selected will be asked through questionnaires.3.2.4) Sample sizeA sample size of 200 respondents of both local and international tourists from a convenience sampling method is to be selected on the basis of this research.3.3) Instrument for the researchThese questionnaires are divided into three sections Section A joust of personal data questions on demographic of tourist will be asked as closed ended questions with using ordinal scale. Section B Pertaining to the marketing mix of Kampung Santubong Homestay Programme against tourist satisfaction. Using Likert scale closed ended questions consists of Strongly disagree, neutral (either agree or disagree), agree, strongly agree. Section C open-ended questions mainly on recommendations or improvements of the Kampung Santubong Homestay marketing mix will be asked.173.4) Data Collection MethodQuestionnaire as referred to Wikipedia.org (2012) a research instrumentate represents by sets of questions for the purpose of gathering the data relevant to t he study of research. Questionnaires are to be distributed in a form of survey form to local and international tourists who participating in the Kampung Santubong Homestay Programme, According to BusinessDictionary.com ( ) questionnaires are a list of a research or survey questions asked to respondents and designed to extract specific information. Questionnaires are to be distributed to the local and international tourists who are participating and had participated in the Kampung Santubong Homestay Programme and local community of Kampung SantubongBoth primary and secondary data are used in conducting this study. Primary data as mentioned by Karuna (2012) are referred to raw and original materials collected by the investigator which relatively expensive and time consuming as compared to secondary data. Karuna (2012) stated secondary data on the other hand lacks of originality (Preserve articles.com, 2012). Primary data is data collected by the researcher to collect denary methods w hile secondary data referred to as data obtained from sources which are already available such as literature, industry surveys, compilations . . . (socialscience.stow.ac.uk, 2000).Analysis of Data3.5.1) SpssThe first version of SPSS (Statistical Package For Social Science) was released in 1968 and was developed by (Norman H, Nie and C. Hadlai Hull (Wikipedia.org, 2012). It is used by every organisation such as government, marketing establishements.183.5.2) pilot project testPilot study will be conducted earlier to test the reliability and validity of the questionnaires. According to Julie Stachowiak (2008) pilot study is defined as a smaller version of a large study that is conducted to prepare for that study. It is also used as a tool to test an idea or hypothesis.3.5.3) dependableness testReliability of a measure indicates the extent to which the measure is without bias and offers consistent measurement across time and other items related in the intruement.(Sekaran, 2001)3.5.4) conjecture statementH1 Tourists are satisfied with the product of Kampung Santubong Homestay Programme.H2 Tourists are satisfied with the price of Kampung Santubong Homestay Programme.H3 Tourists are satisfied with the promotion of Kampung Santubong Homestay Programme.H4 Tourists are satisfied with the place of Kampung Santubong Homestay Programme.19

Nurse-led Respiratory Syncytial Virus Immunisation

Nurse- direct Respiratory Syncytial Virus ImmunisationRespiratory syncyital virus in pre-term babies. Setting up a nurse led clinic to give Synagis (immunization) with implications for nursing practice. From the neonatal nurses view point.IntroductionThe respiratory syncytial virus is identified as a labile paramyxovirus which produces a histologic eachy characteristic effect of causing air divisionnership of human cells in tissue culture hence the term syncytial. It is commonly sub-classified into types A and B. The B strain is generally asymptomatic in the majority of the universe of discourse whereas the A subtype leads to produce the much severe unsoundnesses which tend to predominate in the majority of clinically significant outbreaks (Bar-on ME et al 1996). It has an incubation period of 4-6 days and the transmittance typically lasts from 7-14 days, still does occasionally last up to three weeks. If it becomes necessary to hospitalise a child with respiratory syncytia l virus infection, the admission period is typically 5-7 days.(Hentschel J et al 2005)Contagion in the form of virus shedding is its highest levels during days 2-4 of the illness but the active viral particles pass on continue to be shed for up to 14 days after the clinical on located of symptoms.The respiratory syncytial virus is known to affect some(prenominal) upper and lower respiratory tracts although the virtually clinically significant manifestations arise in lower respiratory tract infections, bronchiolitis and pneumonia being perhaps the most significant. Bronchiolitis is a particularly severe illness in the pre-term infant by virtue of the point that it reachs real significant small airways obstruction. (Sigurs N et al 1995)The respiratory syncytial virus is currently the commonest identified cause of lower respiratory tract infections in children under the age of three world-wide. Serological studies read identified that, at least in the UK, that virtually all chil dren will contrive had at least one episode of infection by the age of three. In the infant and neonate age congregations, it is currently the numerically largest cause of both pneumonia and bronchiolitis (Krilov L R et al 1997), and is similarly thought to play a role (as yet not fully understood), in the etiology of both asthma and chronic obstructive airways malady.(Pullan C R et al 1998) For those patients who have concurrent immunodeficiency states it is a very significant cause of both unwholesomeness and mortality (Long C E et al 1995)Clinical presentationIn our considerations here we shall confine our discussion to those clinical manifestations common in the neonatal group and throw that the comments made do not necessarily apply to those older children and adults who may excessively contract the virus.The respiratory syncytial virus is currently the commonest cause of pneumonia in three-year-old children with the great preponderance in the under three age range. (J eng M-J et al 1997)The initial phases of an infection are generally characterised by symptoms of a transeunt upper respiratory tract infection such as put to workny nose, watery eyes and mild pyrexia. This typically progresses to produce symptoms of cough, wheeze (although this may be absent in the neonate), high pyrexia, dyspnoea, central cyanosis characterised by a bluish tinge to the skin, lips and fingernails, increased respiratory rate and occasionally visible utilisation of the henchman muscles of respiration and sub-costal retraction, all of which indicate lower respiratory tract involvement. (Brunell P A 1997). In severe cases it can progress to the point of respiratory tribulation.In the context of our discussion here, these developments can be extremely dangerous in the pre-term infant who has significantly smaller airways than older children or adults, and also less in the way of respiratory reserve, so that some(prenominal) embarrassment of the respiratory functio n is of proportionally greater clinical significance. (Graham S M et al 2002)Particular riskiness factors for a severe bout of the disease arePrematurityYoung age (especially those less than six weeks old)Pre-existing nub conditions (congenital malformations)Pre-existing lung conditions (bronchopulmonary dysplasia and cystic fibrosis ) repellent system malfunctionLow socio-economic status and especially those who receive inOvercrowded housing conditionsPassive exposure to cigarette smokeDay care or childcare attendancePresence of older children in the same householdLack of innate underground from failure to breast feed.(after Thompson et al. 2003)Mode of infection aft(prenominal) each bout of infection the body develops a degree of immunity to the virus. This is less of a factor in the neonate, whose immune system has not true to the same degree as in the older child. In the pre-term infant , the immune response is (in practical impairment) almost non-existent. In any event th e immunity is never complete as the virus is capable of subtle mutations of its protein coat which allows it to partially evade the immune system. Re-infections are common but they do tend to be less severe than the original attack. (Panicar J, et al 2004)The mode of spread is through droplet spread and from direct come to with infected nasal or spoken fluids. It can enter the body most easily through the epithelial surfaces of the eyes and nose.EpidimiologyThe respiratory syncytial virus produces characteristic patterns of infection which are epidemics of up to v months duration. They typically occur in the winter months and records show (since 1990) that they typically begin in the time span between October to mid-December with a marked peak in January and February. In the UK, the respiratory syncytial virus is responsible for about 125,000 episodes of hospitalisation (Leader S et al 2002).and about 2,500 deaths (NCHS 2002). These factors are of particular importance in our con siderations when we are considering the time of any protection programme.These figures translate into the fact that 20% of all hospital admissions for lower respiratory tract infections are due to respiratory syncytial virus infections, and if looked at as an annual incidence rate, admission for respiratory syncytial virus infection is currently 28.3 per 1,000 infants and 1.3 per 1,000 for children under the age of 4 years. (Muller-Pebody B et al 2002)The highest rate of clinically significant infection occurs at ages between 2 and 6 months with a significant peak in the 2-3 month age range.Respiratory syncytial virus is typically brought into the home by an older (school age) child who then passes it onto the younger child in the family. In child care and crche facilities it is quite common to feel 100% infection rates in both children and staff. On a practical note, respiratory syncytial virus infection has also been seen to spread throughout a hospital environment infecting pat ients and staff alike. (Shay, D K et al 2001),We shall specifically consider the implications of vaccination later in this essay, but there are other issues of prevention that require examination. We have already discussed the mode of common infection through the respiratory and ocular epithelial surfaces. It follows that there are certain measures which, epoch not eradicating the possibility of spread, will certainly help to bring down it. In the home environment, it is sensible to frequently wash hands after coming into contact with nasal or oral secretions and before handling a young child. Frequent handwashing will reduce the risk of contamination by direct spread. tutor age children should be kept as separate as practically possible from a neonate if they have symptoms of a cold. Sneezing into a handkerchief will also help to reduce the possibility of droplet transmission. In its droplet form, the virus will live on household surfaces for many hours and is so unagitated capable of transmission. In terms of the work of the neonatal community nurse, such patient gentility should be seen both as part of an empowerment and education programme every bit as much as a prophylactic measure for the neonate. (Hogston, R et al 2002).In the more controlled environment of a hospital, it is possible to institute barrier measures if there is significant risk such as the immuno-compromised patient or the child at risk with congenital heart disease. Frequent pre-touching hand washing is essential to help prevent cross transmission(Ng D K et al 2000).Specific preventative treatmentsPalivizumab ( or Synagis exchange name) is a medication that is commonly attached to infants at highest risk of complications of respiratory syncytial virus infection, for example those who were born(p) prematurely or those with chronic heart and lung disease. It is given by monthly injection through the at-risk winter months and provides significant levels of protection. This protec tion however, is comparatively short lived and has to be repeated on a yearly foundation garment until the child is judged to be no longer at high risk of significant sequelae of infection. (PPTI 2005). It is also extremely expensive. (see on).Palivizumab is the first of what may become a series, of monoclonal antibodies, which have been true to specifically tar get in and combat one specific infection. Its current indications include prevention of serious lower respiratory tract disease caused specifically by the respiratory syncytial virus.There are currently a number of papers that have studied its safety and efficacy in a number of situations such as bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), infants with a history of premature birth (35 weeks motherhoodal age), and children with hemodynamically significant CHD. (Meissner H C et al 1999),Technically it is a humanised monoclonal antibody of IgG1k type which is produced by recombinant DNA methods. It targets an A antigenic site of the F-protein c overing of the virus. It is to begin with derived from human antibody sequences and has two light and two solemn duress with a molecular lean of about 148,000 Daltons.The viability of nurse-led respiratory syncytial virus immunisation programme.From the literature and the enjoin that we have presented so far we can point to the fact that the respiratory syncytial virus is a significant risk to neonates, especially those who have significant risk factors for the development of lower respiratory tract complications. (Berwick D 2005)Although we specifically have not considered treatment in this essay, we should note that, in the context of a discussion on the role of prophylaxis, that the treatments available for neonate infection with respiratory syncytial virus are severely limited. In the words of Jon Friedland, an eminent professor of infectious diseases in LondonTreating respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis remains a unattackable example of therapeutic nihil ism nothing works except oxygen. Adrenaline, bronchodilators, steroids, and ribavirin all confer no real get.(quoted in Handforth J et al 2004)If we accept that this is the case and we also accept the significant morbidity and mortality rates quoted earlier in this essay, then it clearly makes sense to consider the role of prophylaxis in respiratory syncytial virus infections.It clearly therefore also makes sense to consider what active measures can be taken in crop to try to reduce the possibility of infection or prevent the damaging and serious sequelae of infection.Sadly, this is far from straight prior. One could reasonably try for that a immunologically establish vaccine would have been developed to help with this problem. Despite the fact that the first formalin inactivated respiratory syncytial virus vaccine was developed over forty years ago, progress in this empyrean appears to have been painfully slow.Recently published literature on the subject of the effect of vacci nes against respiratory syncytial virus found that there was no significant benefit conferred in terms of preventing either the infection or the complications. (Simoes E A et al 2001). We should note that this was not a small study but a meta-analysis of five major studies on the subject and therefore has considerable system of weights if we are considering an evidence base for our findings. (Green J et al 1998).If we accept the premise that a successful respiratory syncytial virus vaccine should be able to prevent severe lower respiratory tract disease and the morbidity consequent upon it, and should also ideally protect against both A and B strains of the virus, we would also have to postulate that it would have to be given right off after birth in order to prevent immediate direct infection form the environment. In general terms, this presents the nub of the problem as neonates have very poorly developed immune response mechanisms and the bulk of their immunity is passively de rived form the trans-placental maternal antibody production and the immunoglobulins present in the maternal milk. (Kim H W et al 1969). energetic immunisation in very early life proves to be fruitless, as the immature neonatal immune system cannot generally produce either an fitted T-cell response or sound antibody levels. It is also the case that the maternal antibodies themselves, also interfere with the infants ability to mount an antibody response of its own. (Clements M L et al 1996)In order to combat these problems there are a number of immunological strategies currently under investigation.One strategy is to vaccinate the fuck off during the third trimester in order to try to boost the naturally occurring antibodies and thereby increase the natural passive immunity. This is un promising to give significant immunity beyond the first six weeks of birth unless the child is breast fed, in which case the immunity would last for longer (see below). It would however, have the adva ntage of protecting the most compromising individuals at a critical time. Initial trials of this method using a purified F protein subunit vaccine was found to be safe in a trial of 35 third trimester vaccinations. (Munoz FM et al 2003).The trial showed a disappointing, but detectable, response and the infants had increased IgG against respiratory syncytial virus up until 9 months of age. Clearly this strategy would be ineffective against children born with a significant degree of prematurity and who therefore, are at greatest riskA morsel approach was tried with live attenuated genetically modified vaccine. This approach was found to work in adults and older children but could not be sufficiently attenuated to produce a safe and sufficient response in neonates. (Piedra P A 2003).The third approach was to try live recombinant viral vectors which uttered respiratory syncytial virus proteins. Thus far, the results have been disappointing both in terms of immunogenicity and there are also safety concerns with iatrogenic oncogene activation. (Haller A A et al 2003)In terms of our potential nurse run clinic, all of these plectrons have very significant drawbacks and none are therefore likely to represent a realistic immunisation option.Clarke (S J et al 2000) suggest that although huge strides have been taken with a number of vaccine products especially the live attenuated vaccines, it will probably be a minimum of another decade before routine effective vaccination becomes widely available.It is perhaps because of this failure to present a solution of a vaccine that has caused researchers to examine other avenues of investigation for workable prophylactics.A line of investigation into passive immunity with IV hyperimmune globulins against respiratory syncytial virus has shown positive results in initial trials against preventing severe forms of respiratory complications in high risk children (Groothuis J R et al 1999). This particular prep can only be given i ntravenously and therefore is of limited use outside of a hospital environment. It is clearly of no use in a community setting.The other line of passive immunity has developed into the intramuscular form of IgG humanised monoclonal antibody described above (palivizumab). Clinical trials already published have already shown that monthly injections of palivizumab in high risk infants have been able to reduce the hospital admissions for respiratory syncytial virus-related disease by more than 50% (IRSVSG 1998). This was a well designed double-blind placebo controlled randomised study and, in addition to apparently demonstrating its efficacy, it also showed an impressive safety record.This particular formulation appears to have a very good side-effect profile and clinical experience appears to confirm the initial trial results. Given the fact that respiratory syncytial virus places a heavy financial and economic burden on the NHS, a 50 % reduction in these levels is quite substantial. C ost-effectiveness is clearly a major movement in any consideration of a national vaccination programme and studies elsewhere in Europe, (Roeckl-Wiedmann I et al 2003) have called into question the costings and have therefore also called into question the need for further evaluation.These considerations are given further credence if we consider the fact that if we take as a marker the number of hospital science laboratory incubates of respiratory syncytial virus, there appears to be a marked downward trend in the UK between 1990 and 2003. (Fleming D M et al 2003). It may be that there are other active factors here such as changes in clinical or laboratory practice, but it would appear to reflect a definite downward trend. This comment is actually given further credence when one considers the epidemiological data from the ancient health care sources which also show a fall in acute respiratory infections over the same period. (Neuzil K M et al 2000)Passive immunisation is currently considered to be the best option in terms of providing immunity in the community although many authorities consider that it is currently only an option for the high risk infant.In the terms of our consideration here for a nurse run immunisation clinic, we should consider a set of guidelines, (that were actually produced in the USA), which could be adopted as they are based on the current best evidence available. (AAP 2003)The guidelines suggest that passive immunisation (palivizumab ) should be currently considered for premature infants born at less than 32-35 weeks gestation or for infants younger than 2 years with chronic lung disease. Although this is clearly a rational view, we have to note that it is based upon American statistics and American costings and is applicable primarily to American culture. It does not imply that the recommendations are necessarily transferable to the UK situation.The NHS has been more cautious. The current NHS guidelines were considered and formulat ed by the joint committee on vaccination and immunisation of the Department of Health. (JCVI 2002). Their report notes thatPalivizumab seems safe, well tolerated, and effective in reducing admissions to hospital, but it remains very expensive, at a cost of around 2500 for five doses over the season for respiratory syncytial virus.In the UK, the statistics seem to suggest that readmission rates associated with respiratory syncytial virus infection-related bronchioliitis show that palivizumab is only cost effective if it is used in infants born prematurely with chronic lung disease and receiving oxygen at home (which is actually a very expensive undertaking in any event). (Feltes T F et al 2003). If this opinion is taken in conjunction with the suspicion that the rates of respiratory syncytial virus infection are actually falling, this will actually weight the cost-effectiveness argument further against the use of palivizumab.It is noted that a more recent study of palivizumab in infa nts who have congenital heart disease has been completed, but the selective information collected is insufficient in terms of readmission rates, morbidity and cost-benefit analysis, to allow a confident recommendation for use in this population. (Feltes T F et al 2003)The neonatal nurses viewpoint.In this essay we have considered much of the current literature on the subject of community immunisation for respiratory syncytial virus. There is weeny doubt that the virus represents a significant threat to a small proportion of neonates and a belittled threat to the rest. (Crowe JE Jr 1995). It is also clear from the evidence that the facet of active immunisation of the at risk groups has been aggressively pursued over a time scale of about four decades with very little in the way of positive practical results. In essence, this means that the only realistic prospect of giving the at-risk neonate a degree of protection against the respiratory syncytial virus, is by means of increasin g the levels of passive immunity.We have considered the role of the only viable therapeutic agent in this area (palivizumab), and have come to the conclusion that the evidence base for its use is sound if it is given on a monthly basis through the winter months when the at risk populations are at greatest risk of significant morbidity, and indeed mortality. Against this statement we have to weight the cost-effectiveness of what is a very expensive agent. (Handforth J et al 2000).The neonatal community nurse therefore finds herself ideally placed to act as the gatekeeper in this role. By virtue of her position of having direct contact with each of the neonates in her community, she is probably the most optimally places member of the primary healthcare team to assess and oversee the administration of palivizumab to those at greatest risk. (Scally G et al 1998)The mechanics of the enterprise will inevitably vary from practice to practice, but the elements of any recall system will be a n up to date age/sex register, a forward planning facility and good communications with the antenatal services so that prospective candidates can be assessed at the earliest opportunity. The multidisciplinary nature of the modern primary healthcare team is ideal for communication of this nature and the neonatal nurse should be able to optimally utilise the recall facilities of the practice in order to ensure maximal compliance once the decision to treat has been made. (Yura H et al 1998)On the positive side there is the fact that Nurse led clinics, in general terms, have been proven to work both effectively and efficiently in many other areas.On the negative side we have the practical situation that the current recommendations from the Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation that the current evidence base supports the view that palivizumab should only be offered to babies in the Group I classification, which currently includes babies under the age of two years with severe ch ronic lung disease, on home oxygen during the RSV season. This represents about 500 babies a year nationally. Common sense would indicate that there is absolutely no practical rationale for setting up any form of clinic in primary care for this number of babies on a national basis. Even if this recommendation was extended to include those babies in Group II (those with chronic lung disease but not on home oxygen), this would only add another 1000 to the national total and again, clearly there would be absolutely no rationale for setting up a local clinic base for this type of work load. (Netten A et al. 2000)The Committees reasoning for offering palivizumab to the Group I babies was on the evidence that it would be likely to reduce hospitalisation by a factor of 40% and thereby be cost effective. The Committee also suggested that these guidelines should be reviewed if a more effective and cheaper vaccine became available.If we consider, for the sake of argument, that such a vaccine has become available and that it is both practical and National policy to set up such vaccination clinics, we can consider the leads given by papers that report experiences in other areas of childhood vaccination. Nesbitt (A et al. 1997) give a very informative overview of the practical difficulties involved in setting up a Hepatitis B vaccination clinic. They point to the problems of trying to reach the most vulnerable and potentially isolated individuals in the community and highlight the need for specific nurse initiated home visits to the persistent absentees to the clinic. (Nesbitt A et al. 1995)They also highlight the difficulties in trying to get a level of immunity in a population that is constantly turning over. It requires a very high degree of vigilance on the part of the nurse running the clinic to ensure that all new arrivals are incorporated into the recall system with complete efficiency and without delay.On a slightly discursive subject, the whole issue of the nurse- led clinic was reviewed and assessed for overall effectiveness and cost effectiveness by Raftery (J et al. 2005). This paper demonstrated, beyond doubt that nurse led clinics could be both effective and very cost effective. This particular paper looked at the role of the clinic in the prevention of heart disease in the adult population, which is clearly not directly applicable to our considerations here, but the important relevant considerations are that the autonomous nurse led clinic can work very effectively with auditable results that can demonstrate both positive health benefits and an efficient and cost-effective use of a nurses time. (Polsky D et al. 1997) One of the interesting points raised in this paper which was also directly transferable to a nurse led immunisation clinic was that the increased costs noted also included an element for increased prescribing for intercurrent morbidity that was notice at the time of the assessment. This is a factor that is likely to be tra nslated into increased costings for the vaccination clinic, as many mothers are likely to save up questions and minor degrees of pathology if they know that they are having an appointment with the practice nurse. (Lancaster T 2003).This may well be translated into increased prescribing costs. Taking a holistic view however, one would hope that these costs would not be incurred without good reason and therefore one could conclude that it would be for the greater good of the patient in the long run and therefore presumably justified. (Benger J R et al. 2005)Considering all of these issues one can see that the viability of the nurse led clinic, certainly in the areas of RSV vaccination, is totally dependant on the development of an effective and cheaper vaccine. At this point in time, the recommendations do not support the logistics of a nurse led clinic for palivizumab although it is clear that the neonatal nurse should be the prime source of the palivizumab vaccination, the numbers i nvolved support the specific identification and targeting of the Group I babies.ReferencesAAP 2003American Academy of Pediatrics.Respiratory syncytial virus. In Pickering LK, ed. Red give-and-take 2003 Report of the committee on infectious diseases. 26th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL American Academy of Pediatrics 2003 523-8.Bar-on ME, Zanga JR. 1996Bronchiolitis.Prim Care. 199623805-819.Benger J R, Hoskins R 2005Nurse led care Nurses are autonomous professionals delivering expert care BMJ 2005 330 1084.Berwick D 2005 Broadening the view of evidence-based medicine Qual. Saf. Health Care, Oct 2005 14 315 316.Brunell PA. 1997The respiratory season is upon us. Infectious Diseases in Children.Thorofare, NJ Slack Inc 199710(1)5.Clark SJ, Beresford MW, Subhedar NV, Shaw NJ. 2000Respiratory syncytial virus infection in high risk infants and the potential impact of prophylaxis in a United Kingdom cohort.Arch Dis Child 200083 313-6Clements ML, Makhene MK, Karron RA, Murphy BR, Steinhoff MC, Su bbarao K, et al. 1996Effective immunisation with live attenuated influenza A virus can be achieved in early infancy.J Infect Dis 1996173 44-51.Crowe JE Jr. 1995Current approaches to the development of vaccines against disease caused by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and parainfluenza virus (PIV) a skirmish report of the WHO Programme for Vaccine Development.Vaccine 199513 415-21.Feltes TF, Cabalka AK, Meissner HC, Piazza FM, Carlin DA, Top FH, et al for the Cardiac Synagis Study Group.2003Palivizumab reduces hospitalisation due to respiratory syncytial virus in young children with haemodynamically significant congenital heart disease.J Pediatrics 2003143 532-40Fleming DM, Ross AM, Cross KW, Kendall H. 2003The reducing influence of respiratory tract infection and its relation to antibiotic prescribing.Br J Gen Pract 200353 778-83.Graham SM, Gibb DM. 002HIV disease and respiratory infection in children.Br Med Bull 200261 133-50Green J, Britten N. 1998Qualitative research and evide nce based medicine.BMJ 1998 316 1230-1233Groothuis JR, Simoes EAE, Levin MJ, Hall CB, Long CE, Rodriguez WJ. 1999Prophylactic administration of respiratory syncytial virus immune globulin to high-risk infants and young children.N Engl J Med 1999329 1524-30Haller AA, Mitiku M, Macphail M. 2003Bovine parainfluenza virus type 3 (PIV3) expressing the respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) attachment and fusion proteins protects hamsters from challenge with human PIV3 and RSV.J Gen Virol 200384(Pt 8) 2153-62Handforth J, Friedland JS, Sharland M. 2000Basic epidemiology and immunopathology of RSV in children.Paediatr Respir Rev 20001 210-4Handforth J, Mike Sharland, and Jon S Friedland 2004 Prevention of respiratory syncytial virus infection in infants BMJ, May 2004 328 1026 1027Hentschel J Berger T M Tschopp A et al 2005Population-based study of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in very low birth weight infants in Switzerland.Eur J Pediatr 2005 May164(5)292-7.Hogston, R. Simpson, P. M. (2002)Foundat ions in nursing practice 2nd Edition,London Palgrave Macmillian. 2002IRSVSG 1998The Impact-RSV Study Group.Palivizumab, a humanized respiratory syncytial virus monoclonal antibody, reduces hospitalization from respiratory syncytial virus infection in high-risk infants.Pediatrics 1998102 531-7Jeng M-J, Lemen RJ. 1997Respiratory syncytial virus bronciolitis.Am Fam Physician. 1997551139-1146.JCVI 2002Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation.Minutes of the meeting held on 1 November 2002. www.doh.gov.uk/jcvimins01nov02.htm (accessed 31.3.06)Kim HW, Canchola JG, Brandt CD, Pyles G, Chanock RM, Jensen K, et al. 1969Respiratory syncytial virus disease in infants despite prior administration of antigenic inactivated vaccine.Am J Epidemiol 196989 422-34Krilov LR, Mandel FS, Barone SR, Fagin JC and The Bronchiolitis Study Group. 1997 reassessment of the children with respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis in 1986 and 1987 potential effect of ribavirin on long term pulmonary functio n.Pediatr Infect Dis J. 199716273-6.Lancaster T. 2003The benefits of nurse led unoriginal prevention clinics continued after 4 years. Evid Based Med 20038 158Leader S. Kohlhase K. 2002Respiratory syncytial virus-coded pediatric h

Dominant Women in Society :: essays research papers

In the story Hunger as Ideology by Susan Bordo women atomic number 18 portrayed as passive and inferior to men. Bordo looks into advertisements to prove her point about how visible it is that women are how they are suppose to be dainty and quaint. In the celluloid The Thomas Crown Affair it is totally opposite the woman in this story is independent, strong, and self-reliant. She is able to outsmart him and prove to him that she is able to survive without any help. The mod women has transformed and broken the stereotype and brook made their way into society as an equal. Nowadays, advertisements depict how women should act, dress, and eat. For example in Hunger as Ideology, it show 2 different advertisements for Haagen-Dazs Ice cream, one with a man who just finished a half-pint smiling, the other with a woman who just took a pungency from her ice cream bar. Although very discreet, the message is visible to consumers. Another example, are the sugar-free Jell-o ads, where an att ractive slender woman is leaning back on a chair eating jell-o from a glass. Above the picture is a quote which says, Im a girl who just cant say no. I insist on sweet. To the side of the ad, it states, Every woman is entitles to her just desserts. Just as long as dessert is Sugar Free Jell-O Gelatin. Its light and fruity and fun. And its only calories. This ad emphasizes on how women want dessert, but its only okay to have it if its sugar free. The dessert you dont have to desert because its sugar free. Same concept with the Wonder Light Bread, in this ad two women are side by side on a park bench one holding a carrot, the other happily smiling with a sandwich and the ad saying, Youll think your cheating, but you know your notIts Wonder Light bread. These ads accentuate how its okay to eat a lot, as long as you eat light. Women look upon these ads and are convinced that this is how they are suppose to be, but in the Thomas Crown Affair, the message is completely opposite.Catherin e Banning, is the insurance lawyer for the case against the stolen Monet painting in the Thomas Crown Affair. It is evident that she is a strong independent woman who needs not to rely on anyone especially a man.

pitfalls of herbal supplements :: essays research papers

The four billion a year add on industry sells steroid supplements and herb tea speed to millions of teenage boys and girls. There are many types of supplements among the most popular are Creatine, Andro (androstenedione), and ephedrine. All of these supplements are legal but are they safe? In this paper I will explore why the FDA has failed to put stronger regulations on these supplements, what they are and what they do, who endorses them, and were and how you can purchase these potentially harmful supplements with the help from Jay McMahan and his expertise as a personal trainer and user of these herbal supplements.Creatine, Andro, and Ephedrine are among the most popular supplements, but do we know what they are and what they do? Creatine is an amino group acid compound naturally produced by the kidneys, liver and pancreas, it helps muscles quickly regenerate after exertion. There are no known harmful side effects, though there is evidence that Creatine can cause dehydration, mu scle cramps, weight gain and nausea. The supplement Andro (Androstenedione), is produced naturally in the human body, androstenedione is a precursor ductless gland for testosterone and estrogen. Its structural similarity to steroids suggests it may pose the same risks (liver damage, heart disease, low sperm counts, development of breasts and violent mood swings), though there guide been no long-term studies. The stimulant Ephedrine from ma huang or ephedra, a plant used to treat asthma, fevers, and body and joint pain. Though widely available it has been banned from the NFL, the NCAA and the IOC, and the FDA account anecdotal evidence linking it to eighty-one deaths since 1994.You dont need a dealer or even an ID card to buy these herbal supplements. All teenagers have to do is go to their local mall and purchase it from GNC (General Nutrition Center). Clerks sell these potentially harmful supplements to any one regardless of their age. It seems that they are even trade towards kids with products such as Creatine Candy and smoothies in a variety of fruit flavors and loaded with the supplement of their choice. Why hasnt the Food and Drug presidency put stronger regulations on the purchasing of these supplements? For the ease with which supplements can be gotten we can thank Republican Senator Orrin Hatch of Utah. Ten years ago the sport supplement industry was reeling from a string of disasters. The Food and Drug Administrarion began petitioning congress the right to treat supplements like the drugs most scientists say they are and subject them to long, costly such as pharmaceuticals get before they can go to the market.